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"Nuclei: Videos"

00:00:14 [Music] [Music] so good morning all of you we have come a long way starting with the photoelectric effect which substantiated the idea of plank that electromagnetic radiation can be looked upon not only as a wave phenomenon but also as a quot and quote particle phenomena consisting of quantied packets of energy called photons as I have told you plank himself did not particularly believe in the reality of photons he thought it was only a kind of uh intermediate step or an effective language to describe what


00:01:21 was happening during the interaction of radiation with matter however Einstein took this concept very seriously and he was able to explain all the great experiments of Herz and lonard and milikan most importantly further experiments by Compton completely established that the photon picture is a perfectly valid picture even if it is in sort of disagreement or contradiction with the wave picture and the next step came when raford performed his experiments in order to determine the structure of the


00:01:58 atom and he gave the planetary model the so-called raford model we have discussed that at the great length however the planetary model gave rise to its own problems because the distribution of the electrons around the atom if you imagine that there are orbits like that of planets they were in highly discrete orbits and in particular an atom in the ground state should not have been stable at all according to classical electromagnetic Theory because every accelerated charged particle should radiate so when it radiates it loses


00:02:34 energy and when it it loses energy it starts falling into the nucleus in particular the most abundant atom that we have hydrogen atom should not be stable in fact you should not have lived or existed for more than 10 ^ of- 9 orus 8 seconds after it was formed but we know that the universe is billions of years old so that was a major problem so again we see that there is a tussle or a tension between the classical Concepts and what experiments are revealing to us very much like what happened in the case of the photon and


00:03:13 now the next thing that we studied was that it was the turn of bore who again brought in the picture of photon and also the concept of quantization not only in the energy of the electromagnetic radiation but also in they allowed orbits so once the bore model came then a whole lot of things were understood and in particular the discrete spectral lines were understood the famous lman bomber passion hund all these series were understood the mysterious constant the rbur constant was simply a combination


00:03:51 of the fundamental constants or fundamental parameters mass of the electron charge of the electron PL constant and the speed of light so so everything seems to fall in place so the next question that we have to ask apart from other important questions is what would the nucleus be made of this is a very very important question for us because all that raford scattering experiment revealed it was elastic scattering was that atom consists of mostly empty space electrons can be treated as sort of Point particles they are much much


00:04:31 smaller than the nucleus and all the mass of the atom is Con constrained or contained in a very small volume inside the atom so let us start with that so to write a picture of the atom so we have a nucleus positive charge which is concentrated there and then you have the electron orbits we are drawing it in a plane of course they are all in space and B quantization does not tell you in which plane my circular orbit is it really is IMM material now to give you a scale what we are saying is that this length is of the


00:05:16 order of 10 ^ ofus 8 cm or1 nanom 2 01 nanometers let us say whereas if I were to magnify this so I'm magnifying this blot this is of the order of 10^ of -5 M and this is of the order of 10^ ofus 10 m so we are speaking of a factor of 10 the^ of 5 or 100,000 between the size of the atom and the size of the nucleus we know that the nucleus contains positive charge for sure because atoms are are electrically neutral therefore the big question is what is it that the nucleus is made of and if it consists entirely of positive


00:06:10 charge what is it that holds together so we have a number of questions to ask and to answer and the answer to these questions will obviously come not from uh merely thinking or hypothesizing we have to do an experiment so we have to sort of very very carefully go through what is happening so mind you we are in one shot migrating from a length scale of 10^ ofus 10 m to 10 the^ of-5 m therefore you really need good delicate experiments in order to unravel what was happening and uh it was really fortunate


00:06:48 that in the beginning of the 20th century not very very beginning because Chadwick's experiment per performed sometime in 1932 around that time we could actually particles from radioactive decay which could probe the structure of the nucleus not deeply but well enough to tell us what the constituents are so this lecture we'll start with a discussion of the constituents of the atomic nucleus whatever is sitting at the center and then we will argue try to argue out what they must be consisting


00:07:27 of and what they should be so whatever I have told you so far let me again quickly go through in a somewhat quantitative manner so the first recognition here for us is to realize when we are looking at the fundamental structure of the matter of matter that we have around us we are looking at atoms and nuclei is that there is this remarkable thing called charge quantization there is no logical necessity for charge quantization but nature does exhibit and that is what you are seeing on your screen right now


00:08:06 so what we are saying is that all electric charges come in integer multiples of a fundamental charge unit that is the statement that we are making so let us denote it by modulus of e because that fundamental charge unit can be either positive or negative we know that there are two kinds of electric charges positive charges and negative charges positive and negative attract each other whereas like charges negative and negative and positive and positive repel each other and of course the experiments


00:08:40 involving the cathode ray and the anode Ray that is what they demonstrated cathode rays were positively charged anode rays were negatively charged and of course he had the gamma rays which were neutral and which were later identified to be a part of electromagnetic spectrum we have to remember this so so when we say that there is a quantization by that what we mean is that charge cannot the value of charge or the magnitude of charge cannot vary continuously it is not laying on a real number but it can only take discrete


00:09:14 values and this discrete values are constrained to be integer multiples of this fundamental unit of charge so in this picture I have written qal to n mod e that is what I have written there qal to n mod e n of course can be equal to zero like in the case of a photon if I look upon it as a particle then it can be plus - one plus -2 so on and so forth you will not find any evidence in any experiment for a fractional charge of course this statement must be made with care because we have some indirect evidence for what


00:09:51 are called quarks if you leave them out then that is what we find so this was something demonstrated by experiment of Thompson and D bym mikans experiment so to give you an example electron has a value n equal to minus1 because by convention we say that electron is negatively charged proton which is 2,000 times heavier in fact I should be very careful about this now I should not use the word proton I shall use the word the nucleus of the hydrogen atom the nucleus of the hydrogen atom has a charge equal to Plus 00:10:30 one therefore you see the plus one and the minus one cancel each other exactly that is what is happening and therefore the atom is overall electrically neutral and if you go to other elements like helium Boron berum lithium carbon that is how the whole thing goes nitrogen oxygen that is your periodic table you keep on seeing an increase in the charge number of charges that are sitting number of electrons that are sitting in the atom and the corresponding increase in the charge of the atomic nucleus whatever 00:11:04 its constituents are and they are exactly cancelling each other so you move along the row in the periodic table I will show that to you in a minute so that is what we have shown there is a conventional notation called Z and Z takes values 1 2 3 Etc Z does not take negative values therefore the net charge in an atomic nucleus is always a positive integral multiple of the magnitude of the electric charge that is the statement that we are making now of course we need an evidence for this statement that uh the charge of the 00:11:43 atomic nucleus is exactly the same as the charge of the electron but for a sign and there is experimental evidence for that and this figure is showing qualitatively for example what is the interaction potential between two atoms so let us look at that so what we have is let us say two hydrogen atoms so this is a hydrogen atom this is a hydrogen atom so I can put a circle here I can put a circle here this is one hydrogen this is one hydrogen and we know hydrogen exists naturally not in its Atomic state but in 00:12:25 its molecular state that is what we have from your chemistry course you have learned a whole lot of it about how the orbits overlap and then there is a binding energy associated with hydrogen atoms so on and so forth you have learned a lot lot about the orbitals in your Chemistry course we will not get into that the statement that we want to make is that even if there were a slight excess of charge between these two atoms let us say this was positive this would have been equally positive the net force 00:12:59 would have been repulsive and you would not have been able to form an atom at all that is something very very important for US unless we want to make a rather fantastic statement that one hydrogen atom has an excess of one kind of charge and another hydrogen atom has an excess of another kind of charge for that there is no experimental evidence so that is something that we have so what we want to say is that this is strictly electrically neutral and this is strictly electrically neutral in fact if you assume a circular 00:13:46 orbit or a spherical distribution of charge around the proton you can see that the net charge and the net dipole moment here is zero the net charge and the net electric dipole moment here is equal to zero therefore there should be no interaction at all unless they come very very close very very close now when you come very very close you can perform a very very small calculation which is not difficult at all let me explain what you have to do so you have the heavy nucleus here you have the heavy nucleus here at a 00:14:26 reasonable distance where they can actually interact with each other and then I'm going to write an exaggerated figure I have an electron here and I have an electron orbit here let us say now there is an electron sitting somewhere here there is an electron sitting somewhere here what you therefore do is to write down all possible potentials so how many such terms are there you have the repulsive term between the two nuclei this is repulsive so I'll denote it as R you can can ignore them because they are 00:15:00 very heavy and in the equilibrium position when the atom has been formed in the equilibrium position you can take them to be completely stationary you can ignore this particular term then you have the attractive term between the nucleus here and the electron here which is responsible for the formation of the atom and there is an attraction between the nucleus and the electron here which is responsible for the atom so this is corresponding to the atom there is a repulsive term between the two electrons so I will call it as 00:15:35 an R Prime and then you have two attractive terms and these two terms are what are responsible for the formation of the molecule that is what we want to say so there is a competition between the repulsive ter between the two electrons and the attraction between electron of atom one with the nucleus of atom 2 and the electron of atom 2 with the nucleus of atom one let us say so there should be a net attraction which should be able to give me the net force or The Binding energy between the atoms so what do you 00:16:13 do you know the radius of the atom you fix the distance and you assume that it is in equilibrium and you slightly perturb and if you make a binomial expansion and sure enough you will see that there will be a quote unquote dipole term so so how is the argument that we are going to make we are going to argue that when this electrons comes very close to this it distorts the orbit of the electron because of the repulsive power my electron tends to go here this electron tends to go here in a similar 00:16:42 manner so there is a dipole moment there is a dipole moment and the two dipoles interact with each other that is the picture that we have and dipole dipole interaction is always between two neutral entities because each dipole is electrically neutral so please repeat this calculation this is a favorite problem which will be given in all kinds of exams and interviews so you will do well to work it out if you did that then what is going to happen is that you will see a picture like this very far away 00:17:13 you are not going to find any interaction between them at all so at infinite distance as always I'm assuming when the atoms are at rest their total energy is equal to zero so you see the potential is going to zero very rapidly as they come closer to each other then there an interaction potential between them attractive potential there is a small binding energy of a fraction of an electron volt a very small energy but if they come too close to each other I'm sorry about that if they come too close 00:17:41 to each other you see they cannot sit on the top of each other they are hardcore the two electrons will start tripping each other like anything there is also the poly Exclusion Principle which you would have studied in your Chemistry so there is a strong repulsion so the long and short of the story is that my electron is my distance between the atoms is somewhere here and if you do a quantum mechanical calculation it will tell you what the allowed energy are so quantum mechanical or non-quantum 00:18:11 mechanical this is an example of or in fact this is your famous vandals Force 1 / r^ of 6us 1 / r^ of 7 that is what you are seeing here so this tells us that the atoms are completely neutral even a slight mismatch would have been given R to problems so in fact the current upper limits if I remember correctly are the ratio of the charge of the proton to the charge of the electron if I look at this and I subtract one from this and if I look at the modus of this this is less than something like 10^ ofus 22 or 10^ 00:18:54 ofus 24 so the charge neutrality of the atoms is established to an enormous Precision up to one part in 10^ of 22 that is the statement that we are making so this is a very important ingredient for us in order to understand the structure of the atomic nucleus we should remember this without this it would have been virtually impossible for us to argue what the nucleus should be composed of now this is not the only evidence for the neutrality of atoms I'm sorry this should the so-called equality of the 00:19:36 proton and the electron charge or for that matter any other quantization so this is a picture from an accelerator where two protons at very very high energy of the order of about 5 trillion electron volts they have collided with each other this picture is taken from the CMS collaboration all of you must have heard of the discovery of God Particle this is the picture which gave rise analysis of this picture which gave rise to the discovery of the God particle God Particle is electrically neutral by the way here you see after 00:20:09 the Collision thousand and thousands of particles are being produced so protons will be produced antiprotons will be produced the so-called muons will be produced all of them are charged pi plus pi minus there are lots of charge particles will be produced but all results are consistent with the fact that the total charge is conserved and all of them come in integer multiples of the basic electron charge so what we are going to do is to take the electron charge to be a fundamental unit so we say e equal to minus1 and for a proton 00:20:44 we are going to say charge is equal to+ one and henceforth we don't have to say my charge is this much in units of kulum Kum as a unit is only a matter of practical convenience there is no significance for that but really speaking I should Define a coolum to be the charge contained in so many so many electrons 10 the^ of plus 19 or whatever if it is 10 the^ of minus 19 kums that is the way we should Define and this is what we mean by a natural unit so we have got a very good evidence for the neutrality of the atoms and 00:21:21 quantization okay the next thing that we have to do is to look at the periodic table which was given to us by the heroic work of basically chemists who studied chemical reactions I'm not showing you the full periodic table but I'm going to show you a section and there are two numbers that you are going to see which is important I hope it is visible to everyone here this is vadium so there is a number 23 and there is a number 50. 9415 at this point at this moment at least ignore all decimal points is that 00:22:01 okay so we are saying that it has a number 23 and there is a 50 and sure enough if you count the number of electrons in vadium it is equal to 23 so by convention the jargon is that its atomic number is 23 now you can find out the mass of the vadium atom how do you do that make use of the aatro hypothesis take one mole of that and ask how many of the 10 the^ of 23 molecules whatever you're sitting there so make use of that and determine the mass so if you look at the mass of each of them it turns out to be 50 that 00:22:40 is what we have so what is the statement that we are making the statement that we are making is that the total number of electrons in vadium is 23 which is means there are 23 negative charges which means there must be 23 positive charges to compensate for those 23 negative charges in the atomic nucleus so but the mass is 50 that is what we have that means those 23 charges are distributed among these in this Atomic nucleus which has a mass of 50 now if you look at the hydrogen atom for example there is atomic nucleus which 00:23:25 has exactly one unit of charge which is compensating so if I try to imagine that the atomic nucleus of any atom is built out of that one unit of charge we get into trouble because I have a 50 units of proton mass that is what I have because or the nuclear fundamental nuclear Mass because we know that the mass of the atomic nucleus for hydrogen atom is 2,000 times greater than that of the electron so when I'm looking at the mass I can completely forget the mass of the electrons so this number at the bottom 00:24:03 50 is giving me the mass in the units of the nucleus of the hydrogen atom and this is giving me the charge so you go to chromium so I have to go slowly if you have to go to chromium there is 24 and it increases by one unit then you go to 25 then you see it increases by three units 50 to 54 so on and so forth and it goes on and on and the very interesting thing is that the rate at which the mass increases is not keeping Pace with the rate at which the charge increases but it is a slightly larger rate you see 00:24:40 that here if you were to look at very very slow low mass uh Atomic nuclear that would have been different for example here it is 46 and 106 78 becomes 195 becomes 211 so in the whole region actually the mass in the atomic nucleus the mass number in the atomic nucleus is roughly twice and in fact it starts becoming more and more than two that is what we are saying this is slightly more than two vadia but this is on the other hand it is 270 and 110 it is significantly more than two so in order to understand what the structure of the 00:25:24 atomic nucleus is that is what the constituents of the atomic nucleus are we have to resolve the mystery of the mismatch between the charge and the mass that is the statement that I have made and we have to spend some time trying to understand that so these are the issues with the atomic nucleus whatever I have described to you so far so the question that we are asking is where does the ttra mass come from what holds the protons together assuming that the nucleus is made up of the same fundamental Atomic nucleus 00:25:58 hydrogen which I shall call as a proton which you saw in your cathod R so what ultimately are the constituents of the nucleus this is the question that we have to ask ourselves now there are two possibilities as of today I know that there are two fundamental particles electrons and protons the nucleus of the hydrogen atom so I can be conservative and I can argue that the total number of electrons in an atom is not just confined to the electrons in the orbit that is a statement that I can make so 00:26:37 what I will do is I will say that the nucleus consists of a number of protons and a number of electrons so there are two kinds of electrons rather electrons come in two ways in an atom so what we want to say is this is the first picture so I want to imagine let us say that this is my nucleus and this is my atom the full thing there are electrons sitting here so these I'll call Atomic electrons and here I can say that what I have is protons which is the nucleus of the hyrogen atom plus nuclear 00:27:39 electrons so that is the statement that I want to make so if I go back to this periodic table so let me look at some random example for instance I can look at tungsten w so how do we represent tungston I will write 74 W 183 so what we say is that this is the number of electrons in the atomic orbit and I'll say there are 183 protons in the nucleus plus 183 - 74 so that will be 13 - 4 is 9 109 + 74 correct electrons in the nucleus so if this picture is valid it appears as if my nucleus hosts supports 00:29:11 shelters more number of electrons than the atomic orbit now this is a consistent picture as far as the charge counting is concern concerned the other possibility that I have listed is that maybe there is a new electrical neutral particle which is neither electron nor the proton or Gamma or whatever so the decision between whether there are electrons in the nucleus or whether are there new kinds of particles can be taken only after looking at experimental details so we have to perform new experiments and these new 00:29:50 experiments were performed by first the curri couple jolio curri and Mari curri and then it was followed by very very careful analysis by Chadwick that is what we are interested in the first picture namely that there are 109 electrons in the nucleus is not probably all that farfetched because in radioactivity people had discovered there is something called a beta DK beta minus DK and you know that electrons can be emitted from inside the nucleus today we understand it as an emission DK of the neutr 00:30:31 neutron and therefore if somebody asserts that 109 probability is true except that it will give rise to Greater complications because there are also nuclei which will emit the anti particle of the electron namely the positron so that means we will not be able to fix the number of electrons or positrons at all so this is based on a primitive idea that you know that all these particles are there and they are coming out and they are not necessarily produced but we should remember that this is not completely ruled out because after all 00:31:05 in beta minus DK my electrons are produced that is something that we have to remember before we get into the details of the experiment there is another complication and this again we wo to the careful study of reaction rates by chemists they are the people who gave us the periodic table you have also Isotopes corresponding to a given atom so for example in this periodic table I only showed you for example some iron or mum or rium or rodium so on and so forth it is not as if there is only one species of each of 00:31:46 these atoms they can come in many many species avatars so to say for example if you look at hydrogen chemically there are three species of hydrogen there are very very small differences between them in their chemical reactions but their masses are completely different so we say there are three Isotopes and what are they the corresponding atomic masses is that okay the bottom number are given by 1 2 and three that is to say all these three species of the hydrogen atom have only one orbital electron and we know that 00:32:23 orbital electrons are responsible for chemical reactions the nucleus does not part participate in chemical reactions so they all have the same atomic number that is what we have they have a name hydrogen dyum and tium that is the statement that we make if you look at Carbon whose atomic number is six that is there are six orbital electrons then there are it comes it has again three Isotopes there could be even more but they would be highly unstable 12 13 and 14 that is to say the mass of the nucleus can be either 12 or 13 or 14 00:33:01 so we have to understand that then you have this great nucleus called polonium which was discovered by Mari curri in her studies on radioactivity so when she had to give a name for this new element she remembered her native country country of her birth the motherland so she called it polonium in honor of Poland that is what she did dis has 33 isotopes with the atomic mass ranging from 186 to 227 the stable one is probably around 200 the most stable in probably around 200 or 210 or some such thing never mind about that so in 00:33:41 proposing a model for the atomic nucleus we should also be able to explain what is happening with these Isotopes Isotopes are a very very important uh they are very very important constituents of the periodic table although they may not be shown in a standard periodic table because it is not easy to show them okay so it is here that the experiments of Chadwick become very very important he was a student of Rutherford and Rutherford had actually speculated that the nucleus consists of new kinds of neutral 00:34:20 particles and raford went on to perform careful experiments not only did he perform careful experiments he also went on to do a very careful analysis of his and other experiments to decide what the matter is okay so the idea is to repeat the experiment of raford but then now you are not going to look at elastic scattering but you look at inelastic scattering so what we do is to look at elastic and inelastic SC so what would be an elastic scattering what would be an inelastic scattering so in an elastic scattering 00:35:15 for example total kinetic energy will be conserved all of you know it from your mechanics course and total momentum is of course conserved this is an example of elastic scattering in the raford experiment you had the gold nucleus you had your alpha particles and it was getting scattered like this that is what was was happening if you ignore the recoil of the gold nucleus because gold is very very heavy otherwise you can also take that into account there is no problem about that then when I say that this scattering is 00:36:13 elastic we are asserting that the energy of the alpha particle remains constant throughout so what are we saying it started at Infinity it goes to Infinity so at tal to minus infinity or t equal to plus infinity it is at a very very large distance away from the nucleus therefore there is no interaction between them that means the incoming kinetic energy e initial ktic energy is the same as e final final kinetic energy and we say this is elastic scattering so what is happening in such a process is only a transfer of the 00:36:55 momentum and not transfer of energy that is a very important thing well if energy is conserved how is momentum getting transferred the magnitude of the momentum is the same but it is only the direction that is changing so that is what we say if I were to draw a line here you see the momentum transfer the scattering angle is somewhere sitting here is that okay that is what we have this is an example of an elastic scattering I can also look at inelastic scattering these experiments also you are familiar 00:37:36 with as we discussed that at some length in Frank her's experiment for instance what would be such an example so let me give you a hypothetical case I have an atom let us say and there is an electron sitting in the ground state now what happens your Photon comes radiation comes what it does is to give a part of the energy to the electron so that it can go to the first exited state that is what is going to happen and then the rest of it is going as a scattered radiation now you see your energy part 00:38:15 of the energy is given to increase the internal energy of the atom the atom is still at rest overall momentum is equal to zero let us say and then the if you look at the final energy there is not only a momentum transfer there is also an energy transfer oh well not only you can actually give an electron to the send the electron to an exited State you can actually ionize that that is your photo electric effect so it will follow will come out so this is my photo electron so clearly here if I look at 00:38:51 the scattered Photon it will have a less energy whatever is given by the difference between the initial and the final corresponding to the kinetic energy of the photo electron plus this so in all these cases we say that the interaction is inelastic because the kinetic energy is not a conserved quantity you have given it to internal energy or to eject or to break a system or whatever so what Chadwick essentially did was to perform an experiment by bombarding Light Elements with alpha particles raford did an experiment with 00:39:27 heavy particles but Chadwick bombarded them with light light elements in fact he went all the way from hydrogen to oxygen if I remember correctly it's one of the most beautiful experiments that were performed the preliminary results I think were reported in nature and then he produced a published a detailed paper in proceedings of Royal Society he was a British physicist so what you do is that curri had already discovered the radioactive properties of polonium and polonium decays by emitting alpha 00:40:11 particles in fact the dominant DK is alpha particle to start with and uh at some point we'll work out the charge mass balance so as I told you polonium has an atomic mass in the range of about 200 so this Decay by emitting an alpha particle all isotopes of polonium actually DK they have different lifetimes so you should be intelligent enough to use the right isotope which has a small lifetime that is what you do and the energies range from something like 5.5 million electron volt to about 5.8 let us say six 6 million electron 00:40:56 volts so these are good numbers I would ask you to remember these numbers because we are going to use them later when we look at The Binding energy of the nucleus these numbers are interesting so what curri J curri and Mari curri did for the first time and later by chart week was that to make use of this alpha particles of this energy and bombard light atoms so we have gone all the way from hydrogen to oxygen let us say oxygen has an atomic number of eight if I remember so that is what I have so you 00:41:48 have hydrogen helium Boron berum lithium carbon nitrogen oxygen so these are the atoms that we have he did very very careful experiments and they studied what was happening as an end product this this is the experiment that they performed so when you perform the experiment what you do is to in order to find out what the produced particles are the first thing is that nucleus gets broken so the most important experiment of Chadwick was on berum because it showed the most spectacular effect so let us stick to ailum for 00:42:34 example soon after this scattering berum itself ceased to exist so we have come a long way we started with the question whether atoms are unbreakable they are infinitely hard and now we have gone to the nucleus and we find that nuclear can also be broken this of course is very very important because we know that there is both SP spontaneous fishion and artificial induced fishion and induced fishion is what is responsible for our Atomic reactors which produce whole lot of power and also the destructive 00:43:10 weapons there is also another process that takes place in Fusion which we will study at a later time so anyway the berum gets broken and what comes out so what are we saying you want to know what is inside this ball break the ball you want to know what is inside the room break the ball that is the statement that we are making so this was done by both the cury couple and Mr Chadwick that is what we did so when it happened what happened was that when that scattering knew radiation was observed now I am 00:43:49 deliberately using this word because today we preserve the word radiation for electromagnetic waves but those days it was very difficult to distinguish what it was whether it is an electromagnetic radiation or some other neutral particle so anything that came out of a nucleus was called radiation Alpha radiation beta radiation gamma radiation so that was the word that was used and this radiation consisted of two components charged and neutral so how do you know that it consists of two components the 00:44:41 experiment is very simple you whatever is coming out you apply a magnetic field the charge fellows will all Bend and go away so so let us say that there is you have cated the quote unquote radiation emitted from the disintegration of the berum nucleus let us say so this is a Cod then they enter a region of magnetic field okay then the charge particles will start bending let us say in this direction if there are negative charge particles they should probably Bend in the other direction let us keep that 00:45:18 also in mind and then what I will do is I will make them interact with a gas this is the typical setup of the experiment or it did not be a gas it could be paraffin for example it has to interact with matter that is what you do you can put your targets here also no harm so that I can understand the interaction with all the species that is what you find sure enough you found that there are lot of them which are bending in one particular direction so no surprise about that that means there are charge 00:45:49 particles and these charge particles after bending when they interact with matter it could be either with the hydrogen atom or it could be with paraffin or whatever they simply showed characteristics of interaction of cathode ray with matter which were independently studed so what do you do you ionize hydrogen atom that is your fundamental Atomic nucleus whatever you see you see the same thing happening here except that your statistics has improved of course the energies are different that is what you have so you 00:46:20 simply identify them with protons so no Noel price for this because the curvature whether it bends this way or this way because you know the velocity will give you the charge in fact you can find e by m which will tell you what the masses of these quantities are but then there are these neutral particles which are coming here that is very very important for us how do you know that they exist because they don't respond to your magnetic field what you do is if you put again yeah paraffine Target or 00:46:54 hydrogen gas or whatever these are found to have a great penetrating power and they can actually knock off lot of electrons in fact this neutral radiation can actually interact with the nucleus and further break them so this is the fundamental observation of the cury couple jolio curi Mari curri and also that of Chadwick so that is the statement that we are making so this slide essentially summarizes whatever I was describing to you all this time so what it says is that the bombarded nucleus gave raise to two 00:47:35 kinds of species protons and neutral radiation neutral radiation had enormous power that is a very important thing for us in fact it was greater than the penetrating power of any known x-ray X-rays were known to be the really most powerful radiation which you produced so it was greater than that and they could could eject electrons and a number of protons I'm sorry it is wrongly written here from a number of hydrogen atoms they could eject them so the question was what was this neutral radiation made 00:48:09 of more remarkably you find that there was no evidence for any negatively charged particle so my original hypothesis said that probably my Atomic nucleus consists of what positively charged particles and negatively charged particles which compensate for the excessive positive charge then they should have been bent here and there ebm ratio should have corresponded to the ebm of the electron because that is the hypothesis that we made in fact absolutely no evidence for found for that so you can simply junk 00:48:47 the hypothesis that there are electrons sitting inside the nucleus which is very good because now we have to explain where these electrons came in the case of beta TK but at least we don't have the embarrassment of trying to say that my nucleus consists of everything under the sun proton electrons positrons and I cannot fix the number I don't have to worry about that that is what we have and this is what we have to fix so I have almost come to the end of my story today how are we going to interpret 00:49:23 this Julio curi and Mari curri assumed that that what was being emitted was Photon that is what they assumed and there was already an evidence for Photon matter scattering I think I have discussed it earlier but me explain that to you again so soon after photo electric effect Compton discovered Compton effect this is very very important for us and for the first time Compton effect demonstrated that photons carry not only energy but also momentum so what is the experiment here you assume that the electron is 00:50:10 practically at rest and you send a radiation of frequency new and you look at scattered radiation you find that the scattered radiation has a frequency in U Prime this is the experimental finding and you also look at this C ing angle Theta that is what I have so imagine there is a cated beam of Light which is coming then there is an electron which is at rest now what I'm saying is that I look at the angular distribution of this scattered radiation so if I were to replace this picture by a particle picture it's as if 00:50:51 this electron this radiation came and got scattered here this phow was initially at rest but then it will get scattered and it will move in this direction that is what happens correct because when because total momentum and energy should be conserved now in order to understand this Compton invoked the photon picture and he said that my energy of gamma is given by H new and the photon momentum the momentum of gamma is even given by H new by C that is what he said and this is something that we have discussed at 00:51:27 Great length now you can imagine Compton scattering is elastic scattering between photons and electrons so if my radiation is coming and going in the forward Direction then there is nothing that is happening the maximum momentum will be transferred to this electron and therefore energy will be transferred to the electron at large angles so all that you have to do is to write your momentum conservation equation for whatever particle that you wrot therefore that will give you a definite relation between the Lambda of the scattered 00:52:23 Photon which I will call Lambda Prime and the angle at which my photon is scattered that is your famous Compton formula right H by MC into 1 minus cos Theta that is the number that you are going to get so Compton scattering had been very very well established because we are speaking of experiments then in 193 1932 so taking a conservative approach Mari curri and Julio C assumed that the neutral radiation was nothing but the photon which are highly energetic now this gives rise to a number of problems because it will not 00:53:03 explain to you the neutrality of the atom they would have had to worry about that but Chadwick what he did was to perform a very careful analysis of these experiments so for example he looked at this neutral radiation which is coming he looked at the scattering of this neutral radiation with nitrogen he looked at the recoil momentum of the nitrogen nucleus he did the momentum balance and he argued that the conservation laws which are very very basic to us which are fundamental us what are the conservation 00:53:40 laws energy conservation and momentum conservation they are consistent if and only if we assume that the neutral radiation consists of electrically neutral massive particles he showed if there are photon they would be coming with an energy of 50 million electron volt and the energy conservation would go away so to cut the sh start short I'm not going to do that analysis with this very very careful experiment chat we concluded that there must be a new neutral particle which is roughly the same mass as that of a 00:54:16 proton so MN whose mass is 1.15 times the mass of the proton that is what he gave with a 10% error that is very very important because you rating .15 which is roughly 15% so you're speaking you know it could be very small also compared to the mass of the proton whatever changes and today the current value is mass of the neutron is 1.1 * the mass of the proton given the experimental situation and given the uncertainties and given the kind of Statistics they were looking at it is very clear to us that what 00:54:54 chadrick achieved was something very very remark aable of course subsequently its Magnetic Moment was discovered so on and so forth therefore now our task is to accept neutron as a new fundamental particle a new particle which is a constituent of the nucleus we can do away with the concept of electron in the nucleus and study the properties of atomic nucleus which we will take up in the next lecture I

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Video Lecture 01

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Nuclei (Atomic Nucleus-1) | Video #1 | Neet Physics

Class 12th Physics Video Lecture

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Video Lecture 02

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Nuclei (Atomic Nucleus-2) | Video #2 | Neet Physics

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Video Lecture 03

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Nuclei (Atomic Nucleus: Masses & Stability-1) | Video #3 | Neet Physics

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Video Lecture 04

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Nuclei (Atomic Nucleus: Masses & Stability-2) | Video #4 | Neet Physics

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Video Lecture 05

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Nuclei (Atomic Nucleus: Fission and Radioactivity) | Video #5 | Neet Physics

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Video Lectures For Nuclei for NEET Exam

Overview

NEET Class 12 Physics NCERT Chapter 13 Nuclei

In this video, we will cover:

1. Nuclei PYQs

2. Nuclei NEET PYQs

3. Nuclei PYQs NEET

4. Nuclei NEET Physics

5. Previous Year Questions NEET Nuclei

6. Nuclei PYQs NEET Physics

7. NEET Physics  Nuclei

8. Nuclei Practice Questions

9. NEET Physics PYQs

10. Practice Questions NEET Physics

11. NEET Physics Practice Questions

12. PYQs NEET Physics

13. Nuclei NEET Concepts

14. Nuclei NEET

15. Nuclei NEET for 2026-2027

16. NEET Physics Questions

17. Nuclei NEET Questions

18. Nuclei NEET Coaching

19. Nuclei NEET 2026-2027

20. NEET from Chapter 13 Class 12 Physics

21. Neetbharath.in NEET pe Jeet LH Physics

22. Physics for NEET 2026-2027

23. NEET Class 12 Chapter 13 Nuclei

24. NEET Nuclei Chapter 13 Class 12 Physics

25. Class 12 Chapter 13 Nuclei NEET Coaching

26. Nuclei NEET Class 12 Chapter 13 Physics

27. FREE NEET Nuclei

28. FREE of Cost NEET Coaching 2026-2027

29. Neetbharath.in NEET Physics

30. Nuclei NEET Questions for 2026-2027

31. Questions from NEET Nuclei

32. NEET Nuclei

33. Nuclei Concepts NEET

34. Nuclei NEET

35. Practice Questions Nuclei

36. Nuclei Chapter NEET Physics

37. NEET Nuclei

38. Nuclei NEET Basic Concepts

Chapter 13 Nuclei Class 12 NEET Physics deals with:

  • We will discuss about the nucleus which is the core of the atom.
  • Nucleus is located in the centre of the atom and it is positively charged whereas electrons negatively charged and revolve around the nucleus in the orbits.
  • We will also look at the composition of the structure of a nucleus and itsdifferent properties.
  • How the present day energy crisis can be solved by using the nuclear energy.
  • The interaction between different nuclei.

Composition of Nucleus

  • Nucleus consists of protons and neutrons.
  • Protons are positively charged particles which are present inside the nucleus and neutrons are neutral as they don’t have any charge.
  • Atomic number: -
    • Atomic number constitutes the total number of protons which are present in the nucleus of that atom.
    • It is denoted by ‘Z’.
  • Atomic mass:-
    • Atomic mass is the total number of neutrons and protons which are present inside the nucleus.
    • Mass of electrons is not considered while calculating the mass of the atom and only the mass of neutrons and protons are considered;
    • Since the electrons are the lightest particles their mass is not considered.
    • It is also known as Mass Number.
    • It is denoted by ‘A’.
  • Nucleons  --> Protons + Neutrons
  • General representation of the element: -(AZX) where A = atomic mass and Z = atomic number.
    • For example:- Hydrogen 11H  where atomic number=1 and mass number =1
    • Oxygen168O where atomic number=8 and mass number =16(8 protons and 8 neutrons).

You can practice DPPs, Download PDF of Solutions of DPPs, Revise notes for NEET Class 12 Physics Chapter 13 Nuclei.

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All About: Nuclei NEET Physics NEET Chapter 13

NEET Physics seems to be a quite difficult subject for a lot of students. But, if you get a very good conceptual understanding of the subject, it can be very interesting for you. We, at Neetbharath Tutorials Delhi, will give our best to make NEET Physics Nuclei NEET Chapter 13 super-duper easy for you. Learn about Nuclei NEET Physics in detail with experts at neetbharath.in is what we promise. Learning is a lifelong process. As a student, your focus should always be on learning new facts, concepts and tricks so that you can apply them in real-life scenarios. If your conceptual understanding is clear, you will anyway perform well in your exams. So, please do not just study for the fear of exams or just to score marks, instead learn for the love of learning. We have seen many students mugging up concepts without understanding, which, in turn, makes the subject more difficult and boring for them in the future. Always remember, if your basics are strong, you will be able to understand even the most complex concepts.

We aim at making learning fun as well as engaging for you with our complete end-end learning content with Nuclei NEET Physics Best videos, NEET pdf download, Notes, complete syllabus of the textbook, tests, and Practice Questions. neetbharath.in (formerly called ExamFear Education) is a Free Education platform with more than 10,000 videos on Physics, Physics, Maths, Biology, English, Science experiments, tips & tricks, and motivational videos for Classes 6 to 12, NEET, JEE. Learn for Free!

We, at Neetbharath Tutorials Delhi, will provide you with the best quality videos on NEET Physics Nuclei with special focus on concepts and a lot of examples, also you can download pdf. Not just that, a quick easy-to-refer and understand Nuclei NEET Physics NEET Chapter 13 Notes, based on the revised NCERT textbooks. You can completely rely on the study materials created by our experts and can definitely score very well in your exams. You also have the option to download pdf as well as complete all topics of the textbook. All of these mentioned above will be accompanied with:

  • NEET Physics Nuclei NEET Chapter 13 DPPs: A set of 20 questions from each chapter for you to attempt and check your understanding. Solutions are also available and can be downloaded in pdf format. Download Nuclei NEET Physics NEET Chapter 13 DPPs solutions PDF for free. Practice these questions once you have watched the videos of the chapter; try to answer on your own. Once done, refer to the solutions to check if you were right or not. This would improve your problem-solving skills as well as help you revise topics you are less confident with. In fact, our research says that the majority of the students feel that their concepts are clear while attending a class or watching a lecture video. But it is during solving a problem or numerical that they truly get to know if they have understood the concept or not. Therefore, we strongly recommend you to solve the DPPs as soon as you have watched all the videos of that chapter.
  • NEET Nuclei Online Tests: For every chapter, you can take a test of 10 Multiple choice questions. Correct answers along with explanations will be provided after you submit the test. A set of new 10 questions will appear when you try to attempt the test for the same chapter again. This will help you to revise your concepts on Nuclei NEET Physics. Self-evaluation is one of the best ways for you to understand how much clarity you have got on the concepts of that topic. Based on where you are getting stuck, you can give extra focus on those topics. Taking tests frequently always helps you improve your speed and accuracy.
  • Nuclei NEET NEET solutions: All questions from NEET textbook are solved in detail, along with video solutions for each question. Download Nuclei NEET NCERT solutions PDF for free. Students often get stuck while solving the questions in the exercises of NEET textbook. You can watch the NEET solutions in the form of videos with our experts, and can also refer to pdf format on our website as well as app. If you are a student of CBSE or preparing for exams for NEET, JEE, Civil services, NDA etc. NEET textbooks are very important for you. Please note that we have uploaded videos as per the Revised NEET textbooks (2023-24). Therefore, you can completely rely on the content on our website/app.
  • NEET Physics Sample papers: You must attempt a couple of our specially curated sample papers before appearing for your exam. This will boost your confidence and also help you practice. Once you have completed the syllabus, it is very important for you to solve Sample papers. In an exam-like environment, solve the sample paper. Once done, check the answers and understand which are your strong areas and which are the weaker ones. The sample papers are created based on the complete syllabus of a particular subject.
  • NEET Physics Previous Years’ Questions: Questions that appeared in the last 5-7 years along with detailed solutions for better understanding for the entire NEET Physics syllabus. This is a very critical step towards your preparation for any examination. This gives you a fair idea of what kind of questions are asked in that particular exam. It also helps you understand the important topics from where the majority of questions are framed. We will provide you with Previous years’ questions of Class 10 and Class 12 NEET exams, as well as NEET, JEE, both in video format as well as PDF format.
  • Last but not least, We, at Neetbharath Tutorials Delhi, are on a mission to Neet Education.

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FAQs
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    • Watch NEET Videos on Physics, Physics, Biology
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    Yes, you can. Refer Nuclei NEET Physics NEET Chapter 13 videos, notes, tests, Daily practice problems, questions, sample papers. Similarly, cover all chapters of the complete syllabus of NEET for NEET Physics

  4. How to make use of Neetbharath Tutorials Delhi the best possible way to understand Nuclei NEET Physics NEET Chapter 13?
    • Step 1. Watch all videos, without skipping any video for Nuclei NEET Physics
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    • Step 4. Take online test, sample paper for Nuclei NEET Physics
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Nuclei FAQs

How many Video Lectures are there for Nuclei?▶

neetbharath.in offers 20 free NEET Video Lectures for Nuclei, each with 10-20 questions—200-300 total. Crafted from 25 years of NEET trends, they cover all 2-3 questions this chapter brings to NEET Exam!

Are the NEET Video Lectures free?▶

Yes, all 20 Nuclei NEET Video Lectures are 100% free—no fees, no catch. Expert-designed with 25 years of NEET insights, they’re open to all aspirants at neetbharath.in.

What topics do these Video Lectures cover?▶

Our 20 NEET Video Lectures span Nuclei’s syllabus: atomic models (Bohr, Rutherford), quantum numbers, spectral series (e.g., Balmer n₂ = 3 to n₁ = 2), de Broglie wavelength, photoelectric effect—everything NEET Exam tests.

Do the Video Lectures come with solutions?▶

Absolutely! Each of our 20 NEET Video Lectures includes instant, detailed solutions—e.g., calculate Bohr energy (Eₙ = -13.6 Z²/n²) for He⁺ or spectral wavelength. Learn and fix mistakes fast.

Can I practice under NEET exam conditions?▶

Yes, our 20 timed NEET Video Lectures mimic the real exam—45 Physics questions, ~1 minute each. Perfect for mastering Nuclei’s 2-3 questions under pressure.

Are these Video Lectures updated for NEET Exam?▶

Definitely! Our 20 NEET Video Lectures are refreshed weekly for NEET Exam, focusing on Bohr’s model, quantum numbers, and more—no syllabus cuts noted, just pure numerical and conceptual prep.

What’s Nuclei’s weightage in NEET?▶

Nuclei carries 2-3 questions (8-12 marks) in NEET’s 180-mark Physics section. Our 20 mock tests ensure you nail every point with targeted practice.

How do 25-year trends shape these tests?▶

Our experts analyze 25 years of NEET questions—like 2022’s quantum number set or 2023’s photoelectric V₀—to craft our 20 Video Lectures, matching the exam’s style and difficulty.

How can I ace Nuclei with these tests?▶

Practice all 20 NEET Video Lectures (200-300 questions)—focus on Bohr energy, spectral lines, and quantum rules. Review solutions (e.g., λ = h/mv errors), and build speed with our timed format.

Why pick neetbharath.in for Nuclei?▶

neetbharath.in delivers 20 free NEET Video Lectures for Nuclei, each with 10-20 questions, rooted in 25 years of NEET data. Free, updated, and expert-crafted—they’re your edge for NEET Exam 2-3 questions.

Class 12 Physics Nuclei NCERT Chapter 13


Revision of Class 12 Physics Nuclei is a crucial aspect of effective learning. Revision plays a vital role in the learning process and is especially important before exams. Here are some key points you can consider emphasizing in your content:

  1. - Retention and Memory: Regularly reviewing and revisiting the material of Class 12 Physics Nuclei helps reinforce the concepts in student's minds. It strengthens memory pathways, making it easier to recall information during exams and beyond.
  2. - Consolidation of Knowledge: When you revise notes, you are essentially consolidating your knowledge. This means connecting new information with what you already know, making the overall understanding more robust.
  3. - Identifying Knowledge Gaps: Revision allows students to identify any gaps in their understanding or areas where they need further clarification. This gives you a chance to seek help or delve deeper into those topics. For detailed understanding, you can always refer to the videos of Nuclei Class 12 Physics NCERT Chapter 13 on neetbharath.in
  4. - Building Confidence: As you revise Nuclei Class 12 Physics and become more familiar with the content, your confidence in your abilities grows. Confidence is a crucial factor in exam performance as it reduces anxiety and allows you to approach exams with a positive mindset.
  5. - Different Revision Techniques: Use a variety of revision techniques such as summarizing notes, creating flashcards, practicing past papers, discussing concepts with peers, and teaching others. Different techniques work for different students, and it's essential to find what suits you the best. You can also attend the LIVE Revision classes on neetbharath.in or watch the LIVE Revision Race videos of Neet Bharath Tutorials on Nuclei Class 12 Physics NCERT Chapter 13.
  6. - Spacing Effect: Spacing out revision sessions over time, rather than cramming all at once, has been shown to improve long-term retention. Create a revision schedule leading up to the exams to allow for spaced practice.
  7. - Regular Revision over Cramming: Regular and consistent revision throughout the academic year is very important. Waiting until the last moment to cram everything can be overwhelming and less effective than spaced-out revision.
  8. - Self-Assessment: Assess your understanding periodically through quizzes or self-tests. This helps you to gauge your progress and identify areas that need further attention. Refer Class 12 Nuclei Online Tests.
  9. - Balanced Approach: Remind students to strike a balance between revision and other activities. Adequate rest, exercise, and relaxation are essential for optimal learning and performance.
  10. - Seeking Help: If you face difficulties during the revision process, Refer the videos of Class 12 Physics Nuclei. Clearing doubts promptly is crucial for a better grasp of the subject matter. You can always ask your doubts on Nuclei Class 12 Physics NCERT Chapter 13. “Ask a Question” section of neetbharath.in

By highlighting the benefits and strategies of effective revision, you can approach your studies more mindfully and achieve better results in your exams. Best of luck bachhon!

Class 12 Physics seems to be a quite difficult subject for a lot of students. But, if you get a very good conceptual understanding of the subject, it can be very interesting for you.

We, at Neet Bharath Tutorials, will give our best to make Class 12 Physics Nuclei NCERT Chapter 13 super-duper easy for you.

We aim at making learning fun as well as engaging for you with our complete end-end learning content with Nuclei Class 12 Physics Best videos, Notes, NCERT pdf, NCERT complete syllabus, tests and Practice Questions.

Always remember, it is very important to study with full concentration during Revision. Here are a few tips for you on how to revise with full focus:

  1. - Create a Distraction-Free Environment: Find a quiet and comfortable place to study where you can minimize distractions. Turn off or silence your phone, log out of social media accounts, and inform others around you that you need uninterrupted study time. A dedicated study environment will help you focus better.
  2. - Set Specific Goals: Before starting your study session, set clear and achievable goals. Break down your study material into smaller tasks, and plan what you want to accomplish during each session. Having specific goals will give you a sense of direction and purpose, making it easier to concentrate.
  3. - Use the Pomodoro Technique: The Pomodoro Technique is a time management method that involves studying in short, focused intervals, typically 25 minutes, followed by a short break of 5 minutes. After completing four sessions, take a longer break of around 15-30 minutes. This technique can improve focus and productivity by providing regular breaks to recharge.
  4. - Stay Organized: Keep your study materials, notes, and resources well-organized. Having everything you need at hand will save time and reduce distractions caused by searching for materials. Use color-coded folders or digital tools to maintain a structured study system.
  5. - Practice Mindfulness and Meditation: Before you begin studying, take a few minutes to practice mindfulness or meditation. Deep breathing exercises and clearing your mind of distractions can help you approach your study session with a calm and focused mindset.

- Remember, studying with full concentration is a skill that takes time and practice to develop. If you find your mind wandering during study sessions, gently bring your focus back to the task at hand and be patient with yourself. With consistent effort, you can improve your ability to concentrate and make the most of your study time.

Last but not the least, To get the best hold on Class 12 Physics Nuclei Book Chapter 13. Do not forget to check out:

  • - Nuclei Class 12 Physics Best videos
  • - Nuclei Class 12 Physics NCERT Solutions
  • - Class 12 Physics Nuclei Revision notes
  • - Nuclei Class 12 Physics DPPS, Download PDF of solutions
  • - Class 12 Physics Nuclei Online Tests
  • - Class 12 Physics Sample papers


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